Understanding Online Hate Speech toward Sexual and Gender Minorities: A Systematic Review

Online hate speech (OHS) is a form of cyberviolence characterized by the spread of discriminatory or offensive content targeting groups based on attributes such as ethnicity, religion, gender, and sexual orientation. Despite increasing research on OHS, systematic understanding of OHSs targeting sexual and gender minorities (SGMs) remains limited. This focus is critical, as SGMs often face discrimination and violence both online and offline. OHS targeting SGMs may compound these challenges, reinforcing stereotypes that affect individual well-being and shape public opinion and policy potentially perpetuating inequities. This systematic review aims to 1) identify factors that predict OHS targeting SGMs; 2) evaluate the impact of OHS on health and social behaviors; and 3) examine the coping strategies SGMs use in response to OHS. Following PRISMA guidelines, a comprehensive search was conducted across PsycINFO, Web of Science, Scopus, ERIC, and LGBTQIA+ Source, resulting in 13 studies included. Findings reveal a lack of quantitative articles on OHS targeting SGMs. The reviewed studies highlight a high prevalence of OHS targeting SGMs and describe its harmful impact on their well-being, often resulting in a decreased sense of community cohesion and increased social isolation. Several risk factors associated with OHS frequency were identified, along with variables that influence moral disengagement and intervention of bystanders. These factors included political ideology, frequency and nature of social media use, and levels of prejudice toward SGM. In conclusion, the review emphasizes the need for advanced research to develop assessments and interventions to mitigate OHS’s effects on SGMs and address online discrimination.