A meta-analysis of the effects of outdoor education on students’ environmental knowledge and attitudes

Introduction: Outdoor educational interventions are vital in environmental education, providing immersive experiences that foster hands-on learning and ecological awareness. Despite their popularity, effectiveness varies, necessitating systematic analysis to evaluate their impact and influencing factors. Objectives: This study evaluates the impact of outdoor educational interventions on environmental knowledge and attitudes through meta-analyses. It examines the extent to which these programs enhance cognitive and affective outcomes, explores variability in effectiveness, and investigates whether participant demographics, intervention duration, or educational approaches moderate the results. Materials andMethods: The meta-analyses included 30 studies examining environmental knowledge (n=5,076) and 19 studies on environmental attitudes (n=2,544). A random-effects model was used to calculate standardized mean differences (SMDs) and evaluate the overall effect sizes. Moderation analyses were conducted to assess the influence of demographic factors, intervention duration, and educational approaches on the outcomes. Heterogeneity was quantified using statistical measures, and potential sources of variability were examined. Results: The findings reveal significant positive effects of outdoor educational interventions on both environmental knowledge (SMD=1.10) and attitudes (SMD=0.33). Despite these promising results, substantial heterogeneity was observed among included studies, suggesting variability in program effectiveness. Moderation analyses indicated no significant influence of participant demographics, intervention duration, or educational approaches on the outcomes. This highlights the need to consider other unexplored factors, such as cultural relevance and implementation quality. Conclusions: Outdoor interventions significantly enhance environmental literacy, but their effectiveness varies. Further research should address contextual factors and optimize strategies to improve program outcomes, providing actionable insights for designing effective, culturally relevant interventions.