A meta-analysis of the effects of school outdoor environmental education interventions on students’ environmental knowledge and attitudes

In an era of experiential learning, outdoor environmental education plays a vital role in enhancing students’ physical, environmental, and psychological development. This study conducted two meta-analyses, following PRISMA guidelines, to examine the impact of school-based outdoor environmental education on students’ environmental knowledge and attitudes. Drawing on 29 knowledge studies and 19 attitude studies with 7,359 participants across all education levels, random-effects models revealed significant improvements in both domains. Despite substantial variability among studies, no significant moderators were identified. These findings highlight the effectiveness of institutional outdoor environmental education programs in promoting environmental literacy while pointing to the need for further research to clarify what factors drive intervention success.