Sustainable alternatives to synthetic plant protection products represent one of the major challenges facing modern agriculture. Environmental conditions are among the key factors determining disease onset and development, influencing host susceptibility and the interaction between the host and the pathogen. Climate change exposes crops to continuous abiotic and biotic stresses, making fungal diseases one of the leading causes of yield losses during both pre- and postharvest stages, reducing the yield, quality, and storability of horticultural products. Moreover, the widespread use of synthetic plant protection products poses significant risks to both human health and the environment due to their persistence and potential bioaccumulation. At the same time, the European regulatory framework has promoted the adoption of non-chemical approaches (Directive 2009/128/EC) and progressively reduced the number of approved active substances (Regulation (EC) No. 1107/2009). Furthermore, under the Farm to Fork Strategy, the European Commission aims to reduce the use of synthetic plant protection products by 50% and fertilizers by 20% by 2030. These policies have strongly encouraged the development of sustainable alternatives for crop protection. In response to these sustainability goals, many studies have been directed towards the development and implementation of biocontrol strategies as sustainable alternatives to synthetic plant protection products. Biological Control Agents (BCAs) and plant-derived extracts represent some of the most promising tools for the sustainable management of crop diseases. Their efficacy relies not only on their direct antagonistic activity against pathogens, exerted through multiple modes of action, but also on their ability to activate the defence responses of the host plant. Accordingly, the PhD research focused on two economically important pathosystems, Botrytis cinerea/tomato and Monilinia spp./peach. The main objective was to identify and evaluate the efficacy of commercial formulations based on microorganisms and plant extracts, originally developed and registered for different applications, to assess their potential use against B. cinerea and Monilinia spp. To achieve this goal, a multidisciplinary approach integrating microbiology, biochemistry, and molecular biology was adopted to evaluate the antifungal efficacy of the tested formulations and the biological mechanisms underlying their activity. The research was organised into a progressive experimental workflow. The first phase consisted of in vitro screening of commercial formulations based on antagonistic microorganisms (Bacillus spp. and Trichoderma spp.), chitosan, and plant-derived compounds against B. cinerea, M. fructicola, and M. laxa. All formulations exhibited antifungal activity, although their efficacy varied according to the formulation, concentration, and fungal isolate, allowing the selection of the most promising candidates for subsequent investigations. Among the tested products, Bacillus-based formulations showed high inhibitory activity against all pathogens, whereas the formulation containing eugenol, geraniol, and thymol completely inhibited the growth of M. fructicola and M. laxa. Subsequently, the effects of the Bacillus-based formulations on the fungal mycelium of B. cinerea were investigated, revealing alterations in the antioxidant systems involved in the detoxification of reactive oxygen species. The same formulations were further evaluated in vivo on tomato fruit to confirm their efficacy in controlling postharvest infections. To better understand the host response to the treatments, an additional research line was devoted to molecular analyses. Initially, a systematic review was conducted to assess the current state of the art regarding the validation of reference genes for plant–pathogen interaction studies, highlighting the lack of information available for the peach–M. laxa pathosystem. Subsequently, the most stable reference genes were identified and validated for RT-qPCR gene expression analyses in this specific pathosystem, providing a reliable tool for transcriptomic studies. Finally, these validated reference genes were employed to investigate the physiological and molecular responses of peach fruit treated with a commercial formulation containing eugenol, thymol, and geraniol. In addition to its high efficacy in reducing brown rot incidence, the treatment increased the content of phenolic compounds, antioxidant activity, the activity of enzymes involved in the detoxification of reactive oxygen species, and the expression of key defence-related genes, suggesting that the efficacy of the formulation results not only from its direct antifungal activity but also from its ability to activate host defence mechanisms. Overall, the results provide an integrated contribution to the sustainable protection of tomato and peach by combining applied plant pathology, biocontrol, plant physiology, and molecular biology. Besides demonstrating the efficacy of sustainable disease management strategies, this thesis also provides essential methodological tools for molecular studies on plant–pathogen interactions. Collectively, these findings support the transition towards more environmentally sustainable and resilient agricultural systems, in accordance with the principles of integrated disease management and the objectives of the Farm to Fork Strategy of the European Green Deal.
La ricerca di alternative sostenibili all’utilizzo dei prodotti fitosanitari di sintesi per la protezione delle colture rappresenta una delle principali sfide del mondo della produzione agricola. Le condizioni ambientali sono uno dei fattori determinanti per l’insorgenza e lo sviluppo della malattia, influenzando la suscettibilità dell'ospite e l'interazione con il patogeno. I cambiamenti climatici sottopongono le colture agrarie a continui stress abiotici e biotici. Ciò rende le malattie fungine una delle principali cause di perdite produttive in pre e in post-raccolta, riducendo la resa, la qualità e la conservabilità dei prodotti ortofrutticoli. Tuttavia, l'uso diffuso di prodotti fitosanitari di sintesi comporta rischi significativi per la salute dell’uomo e dell'ambiente, a causa della loro possibile persistenzae del conseguente bioaccumulo. Parallelamente, il quadro normativo europeo ha promosso l’impiego di metodi non chimici (Direttiva 2009/128/CE) e ha ridotto le sostanze attive utilizzabili (Regolamento (CE) n. 1107/2009), e attraverso gli obiettivi della Strategia Farm to Fork, la Commissione Europea dovrà ridurre del 50% l’utilizzo di prodotti fitosanitari di sintesi e del 20% l’utilizzo dei fertilizzanti entro il 2030. Questo ha incentivato la ricerca e lo sviluppo di strategie alternative per la protezione sostenibile delle colture. In risposta agli obiettivi di sostenibilità fissati dall'Unione Europea si è registrato un crescente interesse per la ricerca di alternative sostenibili ai prodotti fitosanitari di sintesi, favorendo lo sviluppo e la diffusione di strategie di biocontrollo. Gli Agenti di Controllo Biologico (BCAs) e gli estratti vegetali rappresentano una delle strategie più promettenti per la gestione sostenibile delle fitopatie. Infatti, la loro efficacia è riconducibile sia all'azione diretta nei confronti dei patogeni, esercitata attraverso molteplici meccanismi di antagonismo, sia alla capacità di attivare le risposte di difesa della pianta ospite. Pertanto, il lavoro di tesi ha preso in esame due patosistemi di primaria importanza per il comparto ortofrutticolo, ovvero Botrytis cinerea/pomodoro e Monilinia spp./ pesco. L'obiettivo della ricerca è stato quello di individuare e valutare l’efficacia di formulati commerciali a base di microrganismi e estratti vegetali, originariamente sviluppati e registrati per differenti impieghi, al fine di verificarne il potenziale utilizzo per il contenimento di B. cinerea e Monilinia spp.. A tal fine, è stato adottato un approccio multidisciplinare che ha integrato studi di microbiologia, biochimica e biologia molecolare, al fine di valutare l'efficacia antifungina dei trattamenti e anche i meccanismi biologici alla base della loro attività. Per raggiungere tali obiettivi, il lavoro di ricerca è stato articolato secondo un percorso sperimentale progressivo. La prima fase è stata dedicata allo screening in vitro di formulati commerciali a base di microrganismi antagonisti (Bacillus spp. e Trichoderma spp.), chitosano e composti naturali di origine vegetale nei confronti di B. cinerea, M. fructicola e M. laxa. I risultati hanno evidenziato efficacia nell’attività antifungina, sebbene con una percentuale variabile in funzione del formulato, della concentrazione e dell'isolato fungino, consentendo di individuare i formulati da saggiare in studi successivi. I formulati a base di Bacillus spp. hanno evidenziato un’elevata attività inibitoria su tutti i patogeni utilizzati, mentre il formulato a base di eugenolo, geraniolo e timolo ha completamente inibito la crescita di M. fructicola e M. laxa. Successivamente, è stato valutato l’effetto dei formulati contenenti Bacillus spp. sul micelio fungino di B. cinerea, evidenziando l’alterazione dei sistemi antiossidanti coinvolti nella detossificazione delle specie reattive dell'ossigeno. Gli stessi formulati sono stati valutati in vivo su frutti di pomodoro per confermare l'efficacia nel contenimento delle infezioni post-raccolta. Per comprendere la risposta dell'ospite ai trattamenti, è stata inoltre sviluppata una linea di ricerca dedicata alle analisi molecolari. In una prima fase è stata realizzata una revisione sistematica sullo stato dell'arte relativo alla validazione dei geni di riferimento negli studi di interazione pianta-patogeno, mettendo in evidenza la mancanza di informazioni per il patosistema pesco-M. laxa. Successivamente sono stati identificati e validati i geni di riferimento più stabili per l'analisi dell'espressione genica mediante RT-qPCR in questo specifico sistema, fornendo uno strumento affidabile per gli studi di trascrittomica. Infine, tali strumenti sono stati applicati per studiare la risposta fisiologica e molecolare del pesco trattato con una formulazione a base di eugenolo, timolo e geraniolo. Oltre all'elevata efficacia nel contenimento del marciume bruno, il trattamento ha determinato un incremento dei composti fenolici, dell'attività antiossidante, degli enzimi coinvolti nella detossificazione delle specie reattive dell'ossigeno e dell'espressione di geni chiave della risposta di difesa, suggerendo che l'efficacia del formulato sia dovuta non solo all'azione diretta sul patogeno ma anche all'attivazione delle difese dell'ospite. In conclusione, questa tesi di dottorato offre un contributo integrato alla protezione sostenibile di pomodoro e pesco, combinando la patologia vegetale applicata, il biocontrollo, la fisiologia e la biologia molecolare. Oltre a dimostrare l’efficacia di diverse strategie sostenibili di contenimento dei patogeni, fornisce anche strumenti metodologici essenziali per gli studi molecolari sulle interazioni pianta-patogeno. Nel loro insieme, questi risultati sostengono la transizione verso sistemi agricoli più rispettosi dell’ambiente e resilienti, in linea con i principi della gestione integrata dei patogeni e con gli obiettivi della Strategia Farm to Fork del Green Deal europeo.
Biocontrol solutions for sustainable management in tomato and peach: from antifungal activity to host defence responses / Lizzio, A.. - (2026 Sep 28).
Biocontrol solutions for sustainable management in tomato and peach: from antifungal activity to host defence responses
LIZZIO, AGATA
28/09/2026
Abstract
Sustainable alternatives to synthetic plant protection products represent one of the major challenges facing modern agriculture. Environmental conditions are among the key factors determining disease onset and development, influencing host susceptibility and the interaction between the host and the pathogen. Climate change exposes crops to continuous abiotic and biotic stresses, making fungal diseases one of the leading causes of yield losses during both pre- and postharvest stages, reducing the yield, quality, and storability of horticultural products. Moreover, the widespread use of synthetic plant protection products poses significant risks to both human health and the environment due to their persistence and potential bioaccumulation. At the same time, the European regulatory framework has promoted the adoption of non-chemical approaches (Directive 2009/128/EC) and progressively reduced the number of approved active substances (Regulation (EC) No. 1107/2009). Furthermore, under the Farm to Fork Strategy, the European Commission aims to reduce the use of synthetic plant protection products by 50% and fertilizers by 20% by 2030. These policies have strongly encouraged the development of sustainable alternatives for crop protection. In response to these sustainability goals, many studies have been directed towards the development and implementation of biocontrol strategies as sustainable alternatives to synthetic plant protection products. Biological Control Agents (BCAs) and plant-derived extracts represent some of the most promising tools for the sustainable management of crop diseases. Their efficacy relies not only on their direct antagonistic activity against pathogens, exerted through multiple modes of action, but also on their ability to activate the defence responses of the host plant. Accordingly, the PhD research focused on two economically important pathosystems, Botrytis cinerea/tomato and Monilinia spp./peach. The main objective was to identify and evaluate the efficacy of commercial formulations based on microorganisms and plant extracts, originally developed and registered for different applications, to assess their potential use against B. cinerea and Monilinia spp. To achieve this goal, a multidisciplinary approach integrating microbiology, biochemistry, and molecular biology was adopted to evaluate the antifungal efficacy of the tested formulations and the biological mechanisms underlying their activity. The research was organised into a progressive experimental workflow. The first phase consisted of in vitro screening of commercial formulations based on antagonistic microorganisms (Bacillus spp. and Trichoderma spp.), chitosan, and plant-derived compounds against B. cinerea, M. fructicola, and M. laxa. All formulations exhibited antifungal activity, although their efficacy varied according to the formulation, concentration, and fungal isolate, allowing the selection of the most promising candidates for subsequent investigations. Among the tested products, Bacillus-based formulations showed high inhibitory activity against all pathogens, whereas the formulation containing eugenol, geraniol, and thymol completely inhibited the growth of M. fructicola and M. laxa. Subsequently, the effects of the Bacillus-based formulations on the fungal mycelium of B. cinerea were investigated, revealing alterations in the antioxidant systems involved in the detoxification of reactive oxygen species. The same formulations were further evaluated in vivo on tomato fruit to confirm their efficacy in controlling postharvest infections. To better understand the host response to the treatments, an additional research line was devoted to molecular analyses. Initially, a systematic review was conducted to assess the current state of the art regarding the validation of reference genes for plant–pathogen interaction studies, highlighting the lack of information available for the peach–M. laxa pathosystem. Subsequently, the most stable reference genes were identified and validated for RT-qPCR gene expression analyses in this specific pathosystem, providing a reliable tool for transcriptomic studies. Finally, these validated reference genes were employed to investigate the physiological and molecular responses of peach fruit treated with a commercial formulation containing eugenol, thymol, and geraniol. In addition to its high efficacy in reducing brown rot incidence, the treatment increased the content of phenolic compounds, antioxidant activity, the activity of enzymes involved in the detoxification of reactive oxygen species, and the expression of key defence-related genes, suggesting that the efficacy of the formulation results not only from its direct antifungal activity but also from its ability to activate host defence mechanisms. Overall, the results provide an integrated contribution to the sustainable protection of tomato and peach by combining applied plant pathology, biocontrol, plant physiology, and molecular biology. Besides demonstrating the efficacy of sustainable disease management strategies, this thesis also provides essential methodological tools for molecular studies on plant–pathogen interactions. Collectively, these findings support the transition towards more environmentally sustainable and resilient agricultural systems, in accordance with the principles of integrated disease management and the objectives of the Farm to Fork Strategy of the European Green Deal.| File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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