Learning flow in educational contexts: A meta-analysis of its antecedents and outcomes

Background: Flow is an affective and cognitive psychological state characterized by complete absorption, intrinsic enjoyment and enhanced performance. Although flow experience in educational contexts—often termed learning flow—has attracted considerable research attention, empirical findings remain fragmented across studies and theoretical perspectives. Aims: This meta-analysis aimed to synthesize existing empirical evidence and systematically examine the antecedents and outcomes of learning flow in academic contexts. Drawing on flow theory and integrating motivational and affective frameworks, the study sought to clarify the nomological network surrounding learning flow. Materials and Methods: A meta-analysis was conducted based on 108 independent studies comprising a total sample of 42,952 participants. Effect sizes were synthesized to examine associations between learning flow and four conceptual domains: (a) learning task and learning environment characteristics, (b) individual characteristics, (c) individual attitudes and behaviours and (d) interpersonal exchange characteristics. Moderator analyses were performed to assess the potential influence of cultural context and flow measurement approaches. Results: The results indicated that learning flow was positively associated with optimal learning tasks, supportive learning environments, adaptive learner characteristics and high-quality interpersonal interactions. Furthermore, learning flow demonstrated positive associations with key educational outcomes, including academic performance, learning attitudes and psychological well-being. Moderator analyses showed that neither cultural context nor measurement approaches significantly influenced the observed effect sizes. Discussion: The findings suggest that learning flow emerges from the dynamic interplay of individual, interpersonal and contextual factors within educational environments. Given that most primary studies relied on correlational designs, the results delineate a comprehensive nomological network rather than establishing causal relationships. Conclusion: Overall, the meta-analysis highlights the importance of adopting multilevel perspectives when studying learning flow in educational settings. Future research should further investigate causal mechanisms and longitudinal dynamics to better understand how learning flow develops and influences academic outcomes.