Making music in ancient Khotan. A re-appraisal of Khotanese terracottas

This article re-evaluates the musical and iconographic evidence provided by terracotta artefacts from ancient Khotan, a major oasis on the southern edge of the Tarim Basin (Xinjiang, China). Rich in depictions of musicians, both human and animal, the Khotanese terracotta artefacts offer a rare insight into local musical practices and cultural affiliations. The analysis contextualises these artefacts within the broader artistic and cultural exchanges that characterised the region, particularly its close ties with Gandhāra and northwestern India. Through iconographic comparisons, particularly with Gandharan, Central Asian and Chinese art, the study challenges the traditional dating of the Khotanese terracotta artefacts to the 2nd–4th centuries CE. Instead, it proposes a revised chronology centred on the 6th–7th centuries CE. This reassessment is supported by the presence of distinctive musical instruments, ornamental motifs such as pearl roundels and grotesque masks, which parallel artistic evidence in Central Asia and China during this period. Particular focus is given to the prevalence of monkey figures in the Khotanese corpus, which are often depicted as musicians or imitating human behaviour, suggesting a distinctive fusion of South Asian narrative motifs and West Asian visual traditions. The paper also considers the possibility that these artefacts were used for funerary purposes, drawing parallels with comparable items such as painted caskets from Subashi, in the Kucha oasis. By re-evaluating the chronology and purpose of the Khotanese terracotta figurines, the article promotes a more nuanced interpretation of these artefacts, which were forged through various cultural interactions rather than directly derived from early Gandharan models.