Phytochemical profiling by HPLC-DAD, GC-MS, and ICP-OES and bioactive potential of Salsola kali L. Structural elucidation and ADME/T valuation for pharmacological insights

Salsola kali L., a halophytic plant renowned for its resilience in arid and saline environments, possesses a rich and diverse phytochemical profile with signifcant bioactive potential. Thiis study provides a comprehensive phytochemical and pharma- cological evaluation of S. kali extracts, employing an integrative analytical approach combining gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS),inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES), and high-performance liquid chromatography-diode array detection (HPLC-DAD). The phenolic composition of the methanolic extract revealed 17 identified compounds, with quercetin 3-O--galactoside (14.74mg/gextract) and pyrocatechol (14.54mg/gextract) being the most abundant, followed by other notable compounds highlighting the plant’s phenolic diversity. Furthermore, bioavailability and pharmacokinetic properties of the identified bioactive compounds were predicted using SwissADME and pkCSMtools, revealing favorable drug-like characteristics. GC-FID analysis revealed that the hexane extract primarily contained saturated fatty acids, with palmitic acid being the most abundant, comprising 55.17% of total fattyacids. The mineral content analysis revealed a rich profile of essential macro-and micronutrients, with potassium (2.62%) as major constituents, alongside high levels of iron (379.82 mg/L).Pharmacologicalassessmentsdemonstratedsigni2cantantioxidantactivity,withthemethanolextractshowing moderate DPPH radical scavenging activity (IC50 � 90.85 ± 0.91 g/mL), while the hexane extract exhibited lower activity (IC50 � 542.59 ± 2.68 g/mL). The methanol extract also displayed promising enzyme inhibitory effects, with moderate activity against butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) and notable inhibition of >-glucosidase. However, acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition was not observed at concentrations below 200 g/mL. This study elucidates the structural and functional attributes of S. kali metabolites, emphasizing their potential as antioxidants,enzyme inhibitors, and nutrient sources for therapeutic use.