Time well spent: the long-term effects of psychodynamic counseling intervention on university students’ present and future time attitudes

Introduction: time attitudes reflect positive and negative feelings toward the past, present, and future, and are associated with constructs of psychological and academic well-being. Recent studies have highlighted the key role of university counseling services in reducing student distress and promoting their well-being. However, the effect of counseling interventions on students' temporal attitudes is still underexplored. This study examines the long-term effect and stability of a psychodynamic counseling intervention on time attitudes, measured using the Adolescent and Adult Time Inventory - Time Attitude Scale. Methods: the sample consisted of 89 university students (Mage = 22.67, SDage = 3.15; 66.3% female) who sought help from the counseling center at Sapienza University of Rome. Participants were assessed at four different time points: T0 (at the intake to the center), T1 (just before the intervention; 1 month later), T2 (immediately after the intervention; 1 month later), and T3 (3-months follow-up). The intervention consisted of four psychodynamic counseling sessions. Changes in time attitudes were analyzed, using linear mixed models (LMM) including in the model sex, age, and time point comparisons as fixed components and the intercept of participants and counselors as random components. Results: controlling for age and sex and accounting for random effects , participants showed both after the intervention (T2) and at follow-up three months later (T3), a significant increase in positive attitudes toward the present, R 2 marginal = 0.08; R 2 conditional = 0.43; p < .001, and positive attitudes toward the future, R 2 marginal = 0.10; R 2 conditional = 0.39; p < .001, alongside a decrease in negative attitudes toward the present, R 2 marginal = 0.05; R 2 conditional = 0.39; p < .001 . No changes were observed in attitudes toward the past or in negative attitudes toward the future. Discussion: this study highlights that psychodynamic counseling significantly improves university students’ time attitudes toward the present and future, with lasting effects. Positive changes were maintained at the three-month follow-up, supporting counseling's role in enhancing students' psychological well-being. Given the link between time attitudes, psychological and academic well-being, these findings support the development of targeted interventions.