Supervisors’ Job Crafting and Feedback Increase Performance by Promoting Employees’ Job Crafting and Work Engagement

Introduction This thesis aims to deepen our understanding of the relationship between supervisors' job crafting behaviors and employees' job crafting behaviors and performance. Job crafting, initially defined by Wrzesniewski and Dutton (2001) as "the physical and cognitive changes individuals make in the task or relational boundaries of their work," has since been integrated into Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) theory. This model emphasizes how employees can self-initiate adjustments to job demands and resources (Tims & Bakker, 2010; Bakker & Demerouti, 2017) to optimize job design, thereby enhancing engagement and performance (Demerouti & Bakker, 2024; Oprea et al., 2019; Holman et al., 2024). The main objective is to increase individual-organization fit and make work comfortable for everyone. Through the lens of social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1997; Miraglia et al., 2017), job crafting is viewed as an agentic process that enables individuals to adapt to and shape their work environments. It is a proactive, person-environment (P-E) fit behavior that allows individuals to align their tasks, relationships, and perceptions with their work environment for a better fit (Grant & Parker, 2009; Parker & Collins, 2010; Tims, Bakker & Derks, 2013). Initially conceptualized as a bottom-up interaction with the organization to enhance job fit, job crafting has been shown to benefit employees directly and indirectly through multiple pathways. Directly, studies consistently show that job crafting fosters positive workplace outcomes such as increased well-being, higher engagement, and improved performance (Sakuraya et al., 2023; Slowiak & DeLongchamp, 2022). Indirectly, research indicates that job crafting can initiate a virtuous cycle, with employees' crafting behaviors positively impacting the broader organizational environment and colleagues, leading to collective benefits (Yongrui & Xinyi, 2022; Wang et al., 2024; Zhao et al., 2023; Garg et al., 2021). Given the productivity and well-being benefits of job crafting, the question arises as to how organizations can promote it. While research has examined bottom-up job crafting, the top-down role of supervisors in facilitating employee adaptation is less understood. Although organizational4 support is crucial for employee engagement and positive outcomes, the specific role of supervisors in this process remains underexplored (Bakker, 2015; Shin et al., 2020). Supervisors, as role models, can significantly influence employees' behaviors and values (Wang et al., 2024). This thesis focuses on the role of supervisors, as they are active role models with significant influence over employees' behaviors. Supervisors, through their authority and influence, serve as key sources of information on organizationally endorsed behaviors, modeling these for their subordinates (Greenbaum et al., 2012). Supervisors can promote or discourage job crafting not only by example but also through their feedback and performance evaluations. Globally, this research presents evidence of a "trickle-down effect" whereby supervisors' job crafting behaviors or their episodic feedback positively influence employees' job crafting and work engagement and, always, their performance. Linking Supervisors’ Proactive Behavior to Employees’ crafting and engagement to improve Performance The main hypothesis underlying the three studies presented in this work is that supervisors’ crafting and feedback have positive effects on the well-being of employees -understood in terms of crafting and engagement-, and finally on the performance of these latter. By testing this hypothesis, we respond to the needs and demands of the organizations (increasing performance) and of the workers (encouraging crafting and engagement), without neglecting the role of the supervisors who must vertically mediate between the demands of their higher order managers and those of the group of collaborators. These processes are nurtured by constant and contingent relationships between supervisors and their collaborators, which produce well-being and content, especially through the supervisor's relational crafting and contingent feedback habit. We take inspiration from crossover theories (Bakker et al., 2009) and role theory to explain the importance of transactions between supervisors and employees, reading the organizational processes in the light of both the abovementioned JD-R and the Conservation of Resources (COR) theories (Hobfoll, 1989).5 The JD-R theory, as proposed by Demerouti et al. (2001) and further developed by Bakker and Demerouti (2007, 2017), offers valuable insights into how the work processes influences employee well-being and performance. At its core, the JD-R theory posits that job characteristics can be categorized into two main groups: job demands and job resources. Job demands encompass aspects of work that necessitate sustained effort, often resulting in physiological and psychological strain. In contrast, job resources are elements that facilitate the achievement of work-related goals, mitigate the impact of job demands, and foster personal development. Job demands and both job and personal resources initiate distinct processes. The studies presented in this thesis will emphasize the significance of job resources as conceptualized by the JD-R theory, highlighting their potential to enhance motivation, which in turn leads to greater work engagement and improved performance. The COR theory, formulated by Hobfoll (1989), emphasizes the importance of resources in managing stress and promoting well-being. At its foundation, the COR theory posits that individuals strive to acquire, maintain, and protect their resources, which can be tangible or not. According to this theory, when individuals face threats to their resources or experience resource loss, they may encounter stress and decreased well-being. Conversely, the accumulation of resources can serve as a buffer against stressors and enhance resilience. This paper will focus on some key predictions from COR theory, exploring how effective resource management can lead to improved psychological well-being and overall satisfaction. Crossover Theories and Role Theory Explaining the Importance of Supervisor Job Crafting and Feedback As stated above, we will use the JD-R theory and the COR theory to articulate a set of hypotheses linking supervisors’ job crafting and feedback habit to employee’s well-being, in terms of job crafting and engagement, and performance. In doing so, we will also benefit from a further set of theories focused on crossover processes, and on social exchanges between organizational roles. In particular, we used insights from crossover theories to explore how crafting behaviors initiated by influential figures (i.e., supervisors) in organizations might positively affect others.6 Indeed, there is evidence that job crafting may propagate among colleagues within the same workplace, a phenomenon often referred to as the crossover effect (Peeters et al., 2016; Zhao et al., 2023). This effect occurs when one person’s behavioral states impact others around them, especially in shared work settings (Hobfoll et al., 2018; Westman, 2001). Bakker et al. (2015, 2016) distinguish two main forms of crossover effects: one operates on an emotional level, while the other is behavioral, wherein proactive crafting by one person encourages similar initiatives among their colleagues. However, the crossover impact of job crafting has predominantly been explored among colleagues (Peeters et al., 2016), with limited attention to the role of supervisors, who instead often influence employee behavior (Bakker et al., 2009). These insights are also consistent with role theory (i.e., Katz & Kahn, 1978), which suggests that expectations communicated by key figures within an organization create opportunities for personal initiative (Katz & Kahn, 1978). Within this framework, supervisors serve as role models, conveying these expectations through their own organizational behaviors, feedback and providing guidance on which tasks to prioritize or avoid (Bizzi, 2017). More broadly, supervisor feedback is recognized as a crucial communication tool (Brown et al., 2016) that positively influences employee behavior (Peng & Lin, 2016) by identifying discrepancies between desired goals and actual performance (Li et al., 2011). This dynamic process an environment where employees are encouraged to take initiative and align their efforts with organizational objectives. Feedback can be seen as an outcome of a supervisor's task and relational crafting behaviors. Task crafting involves modifying work activities to improve fit and well-being; for a supervisor, this extends to aligning each team member’s efforts with key organizational goals. Relational crafting, in contrast, may involve a supervisor enhancing their relationship with the team to more effectively communicate essential information and guidance. Through positive feedback, supervisors can spotlight employees’ competencies and potential areas for growth, enhancing their sense of autonomy and control at work (London, 2003; London & Smither, 2002). Positive feedback, in particular, is known to fuel motivation and performance, encouraging employees to overcome7 challenges and refine their work approaches. However, the effects of negative feedback are more nuanced: while it can sometimes hinder progress, it may also encourage adaptive responses under the right circumstances. Additionally, while one-time feedback can have immediate impacts, employees’ general perceptions of the feedback environment—whether largely supportive or critical—shape how they interpret and react to specific feedback episodes (Sleiman et al., 2020). Employee’s Job Crafting and Work Engagement as Forms of Well-Being in Response to Supervisor Activation Among the benefits of crafting behaviors is a marked increase in positive workplace attitudes, particularly work engagement, both individually and across teams (Bakker et al., 2012; Demerouti et al., 2015; Zhao et al., 2023; Tims et al., 2013; Rudolph et al., 2017). Drawing on the JD-R theory, it can be inferred that a proactive and supportive supervisor provides resources that can buffer work-related stress, largely by offering employees more freedom in managing their tasks (Naeem et al., 2021). Supervisors who emphasize autonomy and provide constructive support foster a positive work atmosphere (Akkermans & Tims, 2017), which is crucial for encouraging employee growth. The effects of crossover between coworkers may be even more powerful when initiated by supervisors, given their dual roles as models of behavior and as organizational representatives (Wang et al., 2024). Additionally, work engagement—characterized by vigor, dedication, and absorption in one’s role (Schaufeli et al., 2002)—is known to improve with better social support, autonomy, and career development opportunities (Bakker & Demerouti, 2014; Schaufeli, 2017). This study thus proposes that supervisors' job crafting can significantly contribute to increase collaborators’ work engagement. We propose a dual-pathway model illustrating how supervisors’ job crafting influences subordinates’ job demands and resources (JD-R) within the framework of COR theory. Drawing on social cognitive theory, we posit that supervisors serve as role models (Bandura, 1977, 1986), and their job crafting behaviors motivate employees to engage in similar actions. Because job crafting requires energy investment, a supervisor’s active engagement signals their commitment to the role.8 In turn, higher levels of supervisor proactivity can inspire employees to invest more in their own work (Daniel, 2003). In line with JD-R theory, a proactive supervisor can reduce work strain by granting employees more autonomy to handle their responsibilities (Naeem et al., 2021), motivating them to go beyond typical job duties (Johnson & Spector, 2007). Altogether, we suggest that supervisors’ job crafting behaviors contribute to promote a supportive relationship, enhancing employee engagement across the team. Supporting this view, Shin et al. (2020) emphasize that supervisors who actively engage in crafting behaviors underscore their commitment to effective performance. Likewise, recent research underscores the vital role of supervisors’ feedback in motivating employees to engage in job crafting (Guo et al., 2023; Wang et al., 2024). Job crafting allows employees to proactively modify their tasks, relationships, or perspectives, aligning their roles with personal strengths, interests, and values (Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001). This empowerment drives employees to reshape their roles proactively, which is fundamental to job crafting. Outline Briefly reviewing the three studies, the first study, titled “Dynamic Model of the Supervisors’ Job Crafting on Collaborators’ Engagement and Performance: A Longitudinal Multimethod Study”, analyzed data from a major telecommunications organization in Europe, gathered during an internal review led by management. This study involved 2,748 junior managers and supervisors, along with 35,219 employees, representing a diverse range of roles, genders, and tenures. In addition to assessing job crafting behaviors, we had access to standardized, objective job performance evaluations for each participant, used by the organization for annual reviews, promotions, and incentives. We hypothesized that supervisors’ task and relational crafting would indirectly influence employees' job performance through (a) supervisors' own performance and (b) employees' task and relational crafting. The second Study, titled “Supervisors’ Job Crafting and Employees’ Engagement and Performance: A Longitudinal Multimethod Study”, explored employees’ work engagement as the9 mediating mechanism linking supervisors’ job crafting with employees' job performance. Unlike the first study, this one used a two-wave longitudinal design with a sample of supervisors and employees from the same telecommunications company (N = 2,478 and N = 27,024, respectively). We tested a mediation model to examine how the crossover effect of supervisors' job crafting -self and other-evaluation- contributed to employees' performance improvement over time, mediated by increased work engagement. The third study, titled “Different Feedback, Distinct Pathways: How Supervisor’ Episodic Feedback Shape Employee’s Job Crafting and Performance”, employed an intensive longitudinal design, tracking a cohort of 212 employees (57.6% female, average age 46.09 years) over a month. Each evening, participants reported on any positive or negative feedback received from their supervisors that day, as well as their own job crafting behaviors and performance. This study explored how episodic feedback -positive or negative- from supervisors fosters job crafting behaviors and enhances job performance, as well as the moderating effect of supervisors’ feedback habit on the relationship between episodic feedback and employee’s job crafting. Together, these studies provide a comprehensive examination of how supervisor behaviors shape employees' job crafting and work engagement, and finally performance outcomes.