Gay and heterosexual single father families created by surrogacy: father–child relationships, parenting quality, and children’s psychological adjustment

Introduction The present study examined father-–child relationships, parenting quality, and child psychological adjustment in 35 gay single father surrogacy families, 30 heterosexual single father surrogacy families, 45 gay two-father surrogacy families, and 45 heterosexual two-parent IVF families, when children were aged 3–10 years. Methods In each family, fathers were administered standardized questionnaires and interviews, and participated in three videorecorded observational tasks with their child. Teachers and a child psychiatrist further rated child adjustment. Results The only differences across family types indicated greater parenting stress in gay and heterosexual single fathers. Irrespective of family type, lower sensitivity and supportive parenting predicted greater father-reported child internalizing problems; whereas lower rough-and-tumble play quality and sensitivity, greater negative parenting and parenting stress, and the child male gender predicted greater father-reported child externalizing problems. In teachers’ ratings, the child female gender was associated with greater child internalizing problems, whereas greater negative parenting, lower rough-and tumble play quality, and the child male gender were associated with greater child externalizing problems. Conclusions The results confirm that the adjustment of children born to gay and heterosexual single fathers through surrogacy is more a function of family processes than family structure.