Depression is one of the most common psychiatric diseases; indeed the prevalence of depressive symptoms has reached epidemic proportions during the last few decades. Several studies reported that depression is more prevalent in women compared to men. Although the reasons for this gender pre-dominance in depression is not understood, women show different hormonal responses that might ultimately influence behaviours and brain functions. The core symptoms of depression include depressed mood, anhedonia (reduced ability to experience pleasure from natural rewards), irritability, difficulties in concentrating, social withdrawal (withdrawal from social contact that derives from indifference or lack of desire to have social contact) and abnormalities in appetite and sleep, the so called “neurovegetative symptoms”. Depression has shown to be comorbid with several neuropsychiatric diseases, such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorders, Alzheimer’s diseases, anxiety disorders, autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and stress-related diseases. Moreover, depression often occurs during the prodromic phase of Alzheimer’s disease, schizophrenia and bipolar disorders. Diets, genetics and lifestyle contribute to the onset and progression of mental illnesses. Regarding dietary factors, Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFA) have received great attention during the last decades, particularly due to the trend towards a poor n-3 PUFA intake of modern Western diets. In this regard, in chapter 2 and 3 of the present thesis, effects of n-3 PUFA deficient and n-3 PUFA enriched diets on female rat offspring have been investigated. Our results reported that chronic exposure to n-3 PUFA deficient diet leads to highly detrimental consequences in behavioural and neurochemical parameters related to depressive- and anxiety-like symptoms. In particular, we found an increase in immobility and a decrease in swimming frequency in Forced Swimming test in n-3 PUFA deficient females, and, in the Open Field test, we showed an increase in time spent performing self-grooming and time spent in the periphery of the arena. Hence, our behavioural results showed that lifelong n-3 PUFA deficiency is able to elicit depressive- and anxiety-like symptoms in female rats. Therefore, we investigated neurochemical changes underlying these behavioural alterations. We found a significant decrease in cortical serotonin and Nerve Growth Factor in n-3 PUFA deficient females, accompanied by an increase in serotonin turnover. Moreover, in chapter 3, we showed that n-3 PUFA deficient diet led to hyperactivation of the HPA axis, in particular increase in hypothalamic noradrenaline and corticotrophin-releasing factor and 132 also increase in plasmatic corticosterone, accompanied by an increase in amygdaloidal noradrenaline and serotonin and an increase in glutamate and a decrease of GABA in both prefrontal cortex and amygdala. Ultimately, we found an increase in plasmatic soluble beta amyloid (Aβ) 1-42 peptide in females exposed to n-3 PUFA deficient diet. Interestingly, soluble Aβ1-42 peptide is receiving great importance in the development of depression, also since depression is highly comorbid with Alzheimer’s disease and other neurodegenerative illnesses. Accordingly, we have previously shown that central Aβ injection is able to elicit depressive-like phenotype in male rats. Thus, in chapter 2, we reproduced for the first time the Aβ-induced depressive-like model in female rats, evaluating behavioural and neurochemical outcomes. Our results confirmed the Aβ-induced depressive-like profile also in female rats. Moreover, the Aβ-induced depressive-like profile was reversed by n-3 PUFA supplementation, indicating a possible therapeutic role of n-3 PUFA in the treatment of the burden of depressive disorders. Taken together, our data suggest that monoamine impairments, accompanied by Nerve Growth Factor alterations and HPA axis dysfunctions, might be considered important neurobiological determinants contributing to the pathogenesis of depressive-like symptoms induced by n-3 PUFA deficiency and soluble Aβ administration. During the last decades, diagnosis in psychiatry only focused on subjective symptoms and observable signs. Although symptoms are an important starting point, genetics and neurobiology underlying these symptoms need to be deeply investigated. To achieve this purpose, animal models can be really helpful to longitudinally study behavioural alterations resembling human symptoms, and ultimately investigate the underlying neurobiology in order to unravel the etiopathogenesis. Therefore, in this thesis, we focused on depressive-like symptoms that occur in several neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative diseases, and, using different animal paradigms and models, we tried to disentangle the neurobiological determinants behind these symptoms. Intriguingly, in order to deeply investigate depression core symptoms in a translational way, the social sphere need to be taken into account. An important depressive-like symptom affecting the social sphere is social withdrawal. Social withdrawal, defined as lack of desire to have social contact, is an early symptom of a wide variety of neuropsychiatric diseases, including schizophrenia, Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) and major depression. In chapter 4 and 5, we investigated behavioural alterations related to sociability and social withdrawal, using a behavioural paradigm called the Visible Burrow System (VBS). The VBS is a 133 semi-natural environment, with burrows and an open area, useful to study social dynamics that naturally occur in mixed-sex rodent colonies, firstly developed by Blanchard group. In particular we identified and validated behavioural readouts to assess sociability and social withdrawal features in C57BL/6J mice colonies, used as control strain, and two mutant lines, BTBR inbred strain and a Pcdh9-deficient line. The BTBR strain is a widely used strain for its similarities with human ASD deficits, such as repetitive behaviour, impaired communication and reduced social interactions, while Pcdh9 gene Knockout (KO) mice are known to affect social behaviour in mice and may, through the core deficit in sensory processing be relevant to a wide variety of neuropsychiatric disorders, such as schizophrenia, major depression and ASD. Our results showed that BTBR mice performed less social behaviours and have a preference for non-social behaviours compared to C57BL/6J mice in the VBS. Thus, our results reported a trend towards social withdrawal in BTBR mice, opening to a deep investigation of the underlying neurobiology that gives rise to this important symptom. Hence, our study validated the suitability of VBS as a behavioural paradigm to assess sociability and social withdrawal features. Conversely, we found no differences in terms of social behaviours and non-social behaviours among VBS colonies composed of Pcdh9 Homozygous (HOM) and Heterozygous (HET) KO and Wild Type (WT) mice, indicating no disrupted sociability of Pcdh9-deficient mice when housed together with WT in the VBS. In this regard, future studies are required to better understand the HOM Pcdh9 KO social phenotype without the presence of social stimuli. Indeed, VBS colonies formed by mixed-genotype and mixed-sex mice are considered highly social environment, and these strong social stimuli might be helpful to improve putative social deficits. In conclusion, the VBS can be used as a tool to study behavioural dysfunctions and might be further used as a behavioural paradigm to test pharmacological treatments aiming at restoring social dysfunctions that commonly occur in several neuropsychiatric disorders, such as social withdrawal. Furthermore, in order to investigate neurobiology behind sociability and social withdrawal, in chapter 4, we analyzed GABA and glutamate content in prefrontal cortex and amygdala of C57BL/6J and BTBR colonies and we found a significant decrease of GABA and a significant increase of glutamate in both areas of BTBR mice. Intriguingly, the decrease in GABA and the corresponding increase in glutamate in prefrontal cortex and amygdala might be responsible for the observed decrease in social behaviour and increase in social withdrawal characteristics in BTBR strain. Thus, enhancement of GABA 134 neurotransmission and consequent attenuation of glutamatergic tone might be a possible therapeutic strategy to treat social withdrawal symptoms that primarily occur in many neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative diseases. Moreover, in chapter 5, we measured GABA and glutamate levels in somatosensory cortex of Pcdh9 colonies and we found that there were no differences in GABA content among the three genotypes in both VBS colonies and standard housing condition. Otherwise, glutamate was significantly increased only in HOM Pcdh9-deficient mice housed in standard cage, while no genotype differences were found in glutamate levels among VBS colonies. Hence, the glutamate increase found in HOM Pcdh9 KO mice housed in standard cages and not found in HOM Pcdh9 KO mice housed in VBS colonies points towards a putative beneficial effect of this highly social environment on glutamate increase induced by Pcdh9 deletion. In conclusion, in the present thesis, we investigated the heterogeneity underlying the neurobiology of depressive like-symptoms, that might be shared across different neuropsychiatric disorders. In this way a multifactorial perspective will be developed. Hence, in order to improve the current pharmacological approach and further develop new safe and effective treatments, the influence of social, environmental and dietary factors, together with comorbidities, need to be considered to ultimately target the correct neurobiological substrates that give rise to different depressive-like symptoms shared across various brain diseases.
La depressione è una delle malattie psichiatriche più frequenti, la cui prevalenza ha raggiunto proporzioni epidemiche negli ultimi decenni. A questo proposito, diversi studi riportano una maggior incidenza di depressione nelle donne rispetto agli uomini, sebbene le ragioni di questa differenza di genere non siano state ancora pienamente comprese. I principali sintomi della depressione includono umore depresso, anedonia (ridotta capacità di provare appagamento o interesse per attività comunemente ritenute piacevoli), irritabilità, difficoltà di concentrazione, ritiro sociale e anomalie dell'appetito e del sonno, i cosiddetti "sintomi neurovegetativi”. Numerosi disordini mentali come la schizofrenia, i disturbi bipolari, il Morbo di Alzheimer, i disturbi d'ansia, i disturbi dello spettro autistico (ASD) e le malattie correlate allo stress, possono manifestarsi come comorbidità della malattia depressiva. Inoltre, la depressione si presenta spesso durante la fase prodromica del Morbo di Alzheimer, della schizofrenia e dei disturbi bipolari. Diete, fattori genetici e stile di vita contribuiscono all'insorgenza e alla progressione delle malattie mentali. Per quanto riguarda i fattori dietetici, gli acidi grassi polinsaturi (PUFAs) hanno ricevuto grande attenzione negli ultimi decenni, soprattutto a causa dell’aumentato consumo di junk food, tipico dei Paesi Occidentali, che ha portato ad una drammatica riduzione nell’assunzione di n-3 PUFA e ad uno smodato aumento del consumo di n-6 PUFA. A questo proposito, nei capitoli 2 e 3 di questa tesi, sono presentati i nostri dati riguardanti gli effetti di una dieta ricca di n-3 PUFA e di una dieta povera di n-3 PUFA su ratte femmine sottoposte, dal concepimento fino all’età adulta, alle sopracitate supplementazioni dietetiche. I nostri risultati hanno mostrato che l'esposizione cronica alla dieta povera di n-3 PUFA può portare ad alterazioni di parametri comportamentali e neurochimici, correlate a sintomi depressivo-ansiosi. In particolare, nelle ratte sottoposte alla dieta povera di n-3 PUFA, è stato riscontrato un aumento della frequenza dell'immobilità e una diminuzione della frequenza di attività nel test del nuoto forzato (FST). In un altro set di animali sottoposti allo stesso trattamento, l’Open Field test ha mostrato un aumento del tempo trascorso facendo self-grooming e di quello speso nella periferia dell'arena. Pertanto, i nostri risultati comportamentali suggeriscono che la protratta carenza di n-3 PUFA è in grado di indurre sintomi simil-depressivi e simil-ansiogeni nelle ratte femmine. Abbiamo successivamente studiato le possibili alterazioni neurochimiche alla base di queste alterazioni comportamentali, identificando una significativa diminuzione della serotonina (5-HT) corticale e del fattore di crescita neuronale 142 (NGF) nelle ratte esposte alla dieta povera di n-3 PUFA, accompagnati da un aumento del turnover della serotonina. Inoltre, nel capitolo 3, abbiamo mostrato che la dieta povera in n-3 PUFA determina un’iperattivazione dell'asse ipotalamo-ipofisi-surrene (HPA), mediante l'aumento della noradrenalina e del fattore di rilascio della corticotropina (CRF) in ipotalamo e l’incremento del corticosterone plasmatico (accompagnati da un aumento di noradrenalina e serotonina in amigdala), così come da un incremento del glutammato e una diminuzione dell’ acido gammaaminobutirrico (GABA) sia nella corteccia prefrontale che nell'amigdala. In ultima analisi, le ratte femmine esposte ad una dieta povera di n-3 PUFA hanno mostrato un aumento plasmatico del peptide beta amiloide solubile (Aβ)1-42. Il peptide solubile Aβ1-42 sta recentemente assumendo grande importanza nella patogenesi della depressione, in quanto la depressione si presenta frequentemente come comorbidità sia della malattia di Alzheimer sia di altre malattie neurodegenerative. A questo proposito, il nostro gruppo ha precedentemente dimostrato che la somminiztrazione intracerebroventricolare (icv) di Aβ è in grado di evocare un fenotipo simil-depressivo in ratti adulti maschi. Nel capitolo 2 di questo lavoro di tesi, abbiamo riprodotto per la prima volta il modello simil-depressivo indotto dalla somministrazione di Aβ nelle ratte femmine, valutando parametri comportamentali e neurochimici. I nostri risultati hanno confermato il profilo depressivo indotto da Aβ anche nelle ratte femmine. Inoltre, il profilo simil-depressivo Aβ-indotto è stato revertito nelle ratte esposte ad una dieta ricca di n-3 PUFA, indicando un possibile effetto benefico della supplementazione di n-3 PUFA nel trattamento dei disturbi depressivi. In conclusione, i nostri dati suggeriscono che le alterazioni della trasmissione monoaminergica, accompagnate da modifiche del NGF e disfunzioni dell'asse HPA, possono essere considerate importanti determinanti neurobiologici che contribuiscono alla patogenesi dei sintomi simil-depressivi indotti dalla carenza di n-3 PUFA e dalla somministrazione del peptide Aβ solubile. Negli ultimi decenni le diagnosi dei disturbi psichiatrici sono state basate essenzialmente su sintomi soggettivi e su segni osservabili. Sebbene i sintomi costituiscano un importante punto di partenza, i fattori genetici e neurobiologici sottesi a questi sintomi devono essere approfonditi. Pertanto, l’impiego di modelli animali può risultare molto utile al fine di studiare longitudinalmente le alterazioni comportamentali traslabili ai sintomi nell’uomo e, in ultima analisi, indagare sulla neurobiologia sottesa per identificarne l'eziopatogenesi. 143 Pertanto, in questo lavoro di tesi, sono stati investigati i meccanismi neurobiologici alla base di sintomi simil-depressivi comuni a molte malattie neuropsichiatriche e neurodegenerative, utilizzando diversi paradigmi e modelli animali. Per poter analizzare in maniera approfondita e traslazionale i principali sintomi simil-depressivi, occorre tener conto anche della sfera sociale. Un importante sintomo simil-depressivo che colpisce la sfera sociale è il ritiro sociale. Il ritiro sociale, definito come la mancanza di desiderio di avere contatti sociali, è un sintomo precoce di un'ampia varietà di malattie neuropsichiatriche, tra cui la schizofrenia, l'ASD e la depressione maggiore. A questo proposito, nel capitolo 4 e 5, abbiamo investigato le alterazioni comportamentali relative alla socialità e al ritiro sociale, utilizzando un nuovo paradigma comportamentale chiamato “Visible Burrow System” (VBS). Il VBS è un ambiente semi-naturale, costituito da un tunnel e numerose tane costantemente al buio e un'arena con un normale ciclo luce/buio (12h/12h), utile per analizzare le dinamiche sociali che si verificano naturalmente nelle colonie di roditori. In particolare, abbiamo individuato alterazioni comportamentali correlabili al ritiro sociale in colonie di topi C57BL/6J, utilizzati come ceppo di controllo, e due linee transgeniche, i topi BTBR e i topi Pcdh9-Knockout (KO). I topi BTBR sono ampiamente utilizzati per le loro somiglianze con i deficit tipici dell’ASD, poiché presentano comportamenti stereotipati, disfunzioni nella vocalizzazione e ridotte interazioni sociali, mentre i Pcdh9-KO sono stati recentemente studiati come modelli similschizofrenici, simil-depressivi e simil-autistici. I nostri risultati hanno mostrato che i topi BTBR presentano deficit nei comportamenti sociali e hanno una preferenza per i comportamenti non sociali rispetto ai topi C57BL/6J nel VBS, con caratteristiche tipiche del ritiro sociale. Al contrario, non abbiamo trovato differenze di socializzazione nelle colonie composte da Pcdh9 omozigoti e eterozigoti KO e Wild Type (WT), indicando l’assenza di deficit della sfera sociale nei topi Pcdh9 KO stabulati insieme ad i WT nel VBS. A questo proposito, studi futuri saranno focalizzati su una maggiore caratterizzazione del fenotipo sociale dei Pcdh9 KO, in assenza di stimoli sociali. Infatti, le colonie, formate da topi di genotipo misto e di sesso misto, sono considerate setting altamente sociali, utili a migliorare i deficit sociali eventualmente riscontrati. In conclusione, il nostro studio ha validato l'utilità del VBS come paradigma comportamentale per studiare le disfunzioni sociali e potrebbe essere ulteriormente impiegato per testare trattamenti farmacologici mirati al loro ripristino. 144 A questo punto, un’analisi della possibili alterazioni neurobiologiche responsabili del ritiro sociale si è resa necessaria. A tal fine, nel capitolo 4 di questo lavoro di tesi, abbiamo analizzato il contenuto di GABA e glutammato nella corteccia prefrontale e nell’ amigdala di colonie di topi C57BL/6J e BTBR, identificando una significativa diminuzione del GABA e un significativo aumento del glutammato in entrambe le aree nei topi BTBR. Abbiamo così ipotizzato che la diminuzione di GABA e il corrispondente aumento del glutammato nella corteccia prefrontale e nell'amigdala potrebbero essere responsabili della ridotta socializzazione e dell'aumento del ritiro sociale nei topi BTBR. Pertanto, la stimolazione della neurotrasmissione GABAergica e l’attenuazione del tono glutammatergico potrebbero rappresentare possibili targets terapeutici per il trattamento del ritiro sociale, tipico di numerose malattie neuropsichiatriche e neurodegenerative. Inoltre, nel capitolo 5 di questa tesi, abbiamo misurato i livelli di GABA e glutammato nella corteccia somato-sensoriale di colonie di topi Pcdh9 e abbiamo evidenziato l’assenza di differenze nel contenuto di GABA tra i tre genotipi, sia nei topi raggruppati in colonie nel VBS, che nei topi stabulati nelle gabbie standard. Contrariamente, i topi Pcdh9-KO omozigoti, stabulati nelle gabbie standard, hanno riportato un aumento di glutammato rispetto ai topi KO eterozigoti ed ai WT, mentre nessuna differenza di genotipo è stata riscontrata nei livelli di glutammato delle le colonie del VBS. Di conseguenza, l'aumento del glutammato riportato dai Pcdh9 KO omozigoti stabulati in gabbie standard e non riscontrato nei KO omozigoti raggruppati nelle colonie del VBS, suggerisce un effetto positivo di questo ambiente altamente sociale, in grado di revertire l'aumento di glutammato indotto dalla deficienza del gene Pcdh9. In conclusione, il presente lavoro di tesi è stato focalizzato sullo studio di differenti pathways neurobiologici in grado di provocare sintomi simil-depressivi caratteristici di molti disturbi neuropsichiatrici, al fine di sviluppare un approccio multifattoriale. Al fine di migliorare le attuali opzioni terapeutiche e sviluppare nuovi trattamenti sicuri ed efficaci, occorre necessariamente considerare l'influenza dei fattori sociali, ambientali e alimentari, così come il ruolo delle comorbidità nell’eziopatogenesi dei sintomi simil-depressivi, in maniera da individuare i corretti substrati neurobiologici responsabili della comparsa di tali sintomi.
Neurobiological determinants of depressive-like symptoms in rodents / Bove, Maria. - (2018 Feb 09).
Neurobiological determinants of depressive-like symptoms in rodents
BOVE, MARIA
09/02/2018
Abstract
Depression is one of the most common psychiatric diseases; indeed the prevalence of depressive symptoms has reached epidemic proportions during the last few decades. Several studies reported that depression is more prevalent in women compared to men. Although the reasons for this gender pre-dominance in depression is not understood, women show different hormonal responses that might ultimately influence behaviours and brain functions. The core symptoms of depression include depressed mood, anhedonia (reduced ability to experience pleasure from natural rewards), irritability, difficulties in concentrating, social withdrawal (withdrawal from social contact that derives from indifference or lack of desire to have social contact) and abnormalities in appetite and sleep, the so called “neurovegetative symptoms”. Depression has shown to be comorbid with several neuropsychiatric diseases, such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorders, Alzheimer’s diseases, anxiety disorders, autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and stress-related diseases. Moreover, depression often occurs during the prodromic phase of Alzheimer’s disease, schizophrenia and bipolar disorders. Diets, genetics and lifestyle contribute to the onset and progression of mental illnesses. Regarding dietary factors, Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFA) have received great attention during the last decades, particularly due to the trend towards a poor n-3 PUFA intake of modern Western diets. In this regard, in chapter 2 and 3 of the present thesis, effects of n-3 PUFA deficient and n-3 PUFA enriched diets on female rat offspring have been investigated. Our results reported that chronic exposure to n-3 PUFA deficient diet leads to highly detrimental consequences in behavioural and neurochemical parameters related to depressive- and anxiety-like symptoms. In particular, we found an increase in immobility and a decrease in swimming frequency in Forced Swimming test in n-3 PUFA deficient females, and, in the Open Field test, we showed an increase in time spent performing self-grooming and time spent in the periphery of the arena. Hence, our behavioural results showed that lifelong n-3 PUFA deficiency is able to elicit depressive- and anxiety-like symptoms in female rats. Therefore, we investigated neurochemical changes underlying these behavioural alterations. We found a significant decrease in cortical serotonin and Nerve Growth Factor in n-3 PUFA deficient females, accompanied by an increase in serotonin turnover. Moreover, in chapter 3, we showed that n-3 PUFA deficient diet led to hyperactivation of the HPA axis, in particular increase in hypothalamic noradrenaline and corticotrophin-releasing factor and 132 also increase in plasmatic corticosterone, accompanied by an increase in amygdaloidal noradrenaline and serotonin and an increase in glutamate and a decrease of GABA in both prefrontal cortex and amygdala. Ultimately, we found an increase in plasmatic soluble beta amyloid (Aβ) 1-42 peptide in females exposed to n-3 PUFA deficient diet. Interestingly, soluble Aβ1-42 peptide is receiving great importance in the development of depression, also since depression is highly comorbid with Alzheimer’s disease and other neurodegenerative illnesses. Accordingly, we have previously shown that central Aβ injection is able to elicit depressive-like phenotype in male rats. Thus, in chapter 2, we reproduced for the first time the Aβ-induced depressive-like model in female rats, evaluating behavioural and neurochemical outcomes. Our results confirmed the Aβ-induced depressive-like profile also in female rats. Moreover, the Aβ-induced depressive-like profile was reversed by n-3 PUFA supplementation, indicating a possible therapeutic role of n-3 PUFA in the treatment of the burden of depressive disorders. Taken together, our data suggest that monoamine impairments, accompanied by Nerve Growth Factor alterations and HPA axis dysfunctions, might be considered important neurobiological determinants contributing to the pathogenesis of depressive-like symptoms induced by n-3 PUFA deficiency and soluble Aβ administration. During the last decades, diagnosis in psychiatry only focused on subjective symptoms and observable signs. Although symptoms are an important starting point, genetics and neurobiology underlying these symptoms need to be deeply investigated. To achieve this purpose, animal models can be really helpful to longitudinally study behavioural alterations resembling human symptoms, and ultimately investigate the underlying neurobiology in order to unravel the etiopathogenesis. Therefore, in this thesis, we focused on depressive-like symptoms that occur in several neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative diseases, and, using different animal paradigms and models, we tried to disentangle the neurobiological determinants behind these symptoms. Intriguingly, in order to deeply investigate depression core symptoms in a translational way, the social sphere need to be taken into account. An important depressive-like symptom affecting the social sphere is social withdrawal. Social withdrawal, defined as lack of desire to have social contact, is an early symptom of a wide variety of neuropsychiatric diseases, including schizophrenia, Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) and major depression. In chapter 4 and 5, we investigated behavioural alterations related to sociability and social withdrawal, using a behavioural paradigm called the Visible Burrow System (VBS). The VBS is a 133 semi-natural environment, with burrows and an open area, useful to study social dynamics that naturally occur in mixed-sex rodent colonies, firstly developed by Blanchard group. In particular we identified and validated behavioural readouts to assess sociability and social withdrawal features in C57BL/6J mice colonies, used as control strain, and two mutant lines, BTBR inbred strain and a Pcdh9-deficient line. The BTBR strain is a widely used strain for its similarities with human ASD deficits, such as repetitive behaviour, impaired communication and reduced social interactions, while Pcdh9 gene Knockout (KO) mice are known to affect social behaviour in mice and may, through the core deficit in sensory processing be relevant to a wide variety of neuropsychiatric disorders, such as schizophrenia, major depression and ASD. Our results showed that BTBR mice performed less social behaviours and have a preference for non-social behaviours compared to C57BL/6J mice in the VBS. Thus, our results reported a trend towards social withdrawal in BTBR mice, opening to a deep investigation of the underlying neurobiology that gives rise to this important symptom. Hence, our study validated the suitability of VBS as a behavioural paradigm to assess sociability and social withdrawal features. Conversely, we found no differences in terms of social behaviours and non-social behaviours among VBS colonies composed of Pcdh9 Homozygous (HOM) and Heterozygous (HET) KO and Wild Type (WT) mice, indicating no disrupted sociability of Pcdh9-deficient mice when housed together with WT in the VBS. In this regard, future studies are required to better understand the HOM Pcdh9 KO social phenotype without the presence of social stimuli. Indeed, VBS colonies formed by mixed-genotype and mixed-sex mice are considered highly social environment, and these strong social stimuli might be helpful to improve putative social deficits. In conclusion, the VBS can be used as a tool to study behavioural dysfunctions and might be further used as a behavioural paradigm to test pharmacological treatments aiming at restoring social dysfunctions that commonly occur in several neuropsychiatric disorders, such as social withdrawal. Furthermore, in order to investigate neurobiology behind sociability and social withdrawal, in chapter 4, we analyzed GABA and glutamate content in prefrontal cortex and amygdala of C57BL/6J and BTBR colonies and we found a significant decrease of GABA and a significant increase of glutamate in both areas of BTBR mice. Intriguingly, the decrease in GABA and the corresponding increase in glutamate in prefrontal cortex and amygdala might be responsible for the observed decrease in social behaviour and increase in social withdrawal characteristics in BTBR strain. Thus, enhancement of GABA 134 neurotransmission and consequent attenuation of glutamatergic tone might be a possible therapeutic strategy to treat social withdrawal symptoms that primarily occur in many neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative diseases. Moreover, in chapter 5, we measured GABA and glutamate levels in somatosensory cortex of Pcdh9 colonies and we found that there were no differences in GABA content among the three genotypes in both VBS colonies and standard housing condition. Otherwise, glutamate was significantly increased only in HOM Pcdh9-deficient mice housed in standard cage, while no genotype differences were found in glutamate levels among VBS colonies. Hence, the glutamate increase found in HOM Pcdh9 KO mice housed in standard cages and not found in HOM Pcdh9 KO mice housed in VBS colonies points towards a putative beneficial effect of this highly social environment on glutamate increase induced by Pcdh9 deletion. In conclusion, in the present thesis, we investigated the heterogeneity underlying the neurobiology of depressive like-symptoms, that might be shared across different neuropsychiatric disorders. In this way a multifactorial perspective will be developed. Hence, in order to improve the current pharmacological approach and further develop new safe and effective treatments, the influence of social, environmental and dietary factors, together with comorbidities, need to be considered to ultimately target the correct neurobiological substrates that give rise to different depressive-like symptoms shared across various brain diseases.File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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