Protocols of exercise testing in athletes and cardiopulmonary testing: assessment of fitness

Exercise and cardiopulmonary exercise testing are essential in the evaluation of the cardiovascular response to exercise. They are clinically used to evaluate the subject’s capacity to tolerate increasing work loads. Throughout the tests electrocardiographic, haemodynamic, and symptomatic responses are monitored to assess ischaemic, hypertensive, and arrhythmic manifestations of disease. Ventilatory expired gas analysis may also be performed, as it provides fundamental information, particularly in patients with congestive heart failure or other exercise-induced limitations.