The urban and exurban religious space in Barikot (Swat, Pakistan) in the phase of the last urban occupation (3rd-4th centuries CE)

With the collapse of the Kushan Empire, the ancient city of Barikot experienced economic decline and seismic activity that damaged residential structures. Despite these challenges, archaeological evidence indicates ongoing reconstruction activities of both urban and exurban Buddhist monuments during the last phase of urban occupation (3rd to 4th century CE). This paper examines two Buddhist monuments Building H within the city and the Amluk-dara stūpa outside the city – to explore the motivations behind these restoration efforts. The analysis of the rebuilding work on Building H’s exteriors, particularly the newly constructed small shrines or monuments in front of the building, suggests that restoration efforts persisted despite the Kushan Empire’s fall, possibly reflecting a shift towards adapting and repurposing earlier sacred spaces rather than exclusively constructing new large-scale monuments. Meanwhile, the restoration of the Amluk-dara stūpa focused on repairing earthquake damage to maintain its role as a prominent landmark in the Buddhist landscape. These ongoing restoration efforts were likely supported by the Buddhist community, whose control over agriculture and trade routes remained rela tively stable despite the city’s economic decline.