Imaging of the Upper and Lower Urinary Tract: Radiology

This chapter review indications, techniques, and results of radiological (x-ray) and ultrasound (US) imaging of the upper urinary tract (UUT) and lower urinary tract (LUT) in women with LUT dysfunction (LUTD). Research into diagnostic accuracy is regulated by the standards for reporting of diagnostic accuracy initiative although the recommendations are rarely adhered to in the literature. The rationale for imaging the UUT in female patients with LUTD is twofold: to identify UUT malformations that may be associated with LUTD and to monitor the effect of LUTD on the UUT when necessary. Different imaging techniques can be used to picture the UUT: ultrasonography, x-rays, CT, MRI, and isotope scanning. The use of x-ray imaging in female patients with UI and POP is limited. IVU, together with CT, and MRI of the UUT maintain a diagnostic role when evaluation of the renal moiety is needed in patients with ectopic ureters and the condition of the UUT needs to be monitored.