Soldiers Becoming Pharaohs or Pharaohs becoming Soldiers? Kingship and Warfare between the Middle Kingdom and the Second Intermediate Period

A fundamental aspect of Egyptian kingship is the characterisation of the ruler as a lone fighter, defender of the cosmic balance and destroyer of enemies. However, it is arduous to establish, beyond the ideological narrative, a direct involvement of the pharaoh in military campaigns or even in fighting. A change may have occurred during the Middle Kingdom, with an evolution of the Egyptian military and the connection between the king and a considerable number of military campaigns. The unclear period between the end of the Middle Kingdom and the Second Intermediate Period, marked by ephemeral and little-known rulers, saw an increase in the importance of military officers, with some of them rising to the throne. Accordingly, a parallel between alleged Egyptian soldier-kings and Roman ‘barracks emperors’ has been suggested by scholars. Pieces of evidence point at a stronger connection between the Theban kings and their military forces, and a direct involvement in warfare is possible. This is evident with the rulers of Abydos, thanks to the study of the human remains of one of them, who fell in battle or was executed after a clash. This contribution aims to clarify if any Egyptian king-soldier could be identified, and if any military officials could have become king in the 13th dynasty. Furthermore, the military role of the Egyptian rulers in the Second Intermediate Period is identified.